2011年6月16日 星期四

杰菲逊纪念堂里的舞蹈风波2-为何抗议

现在我们来看下亚当.科克什为何组织这次公民不服从的抗议行动。原来,他们抗议的是美国法庭对于杰菲逊纪念堂管理方“禁止在纪念堂内部跳舞”规定的支持性判决。

这篇文章中有介绍:
3年多前的2008年4月12日是托马斯.杰菲逊265周年诞辰。这一天有17名前来纪念杰菲逊诞辰的人士在纪念堂内跳起了舞。巡警上前制止,但一名叫玛丽.奥伯维特(Mary Oberwetter)的妇女拒绝服从,故被警方逮捕。事后,奥伯维特女士提起上诉,认为禁止跳舞的管理规定侵犯了她宪法修正案保证的言论自由权利。今年1月,法官贝特兹判决奥伯维特女士败诉,认为公园该项规定是合理的。判决书认为:

“The purpose of the memorial is to publicize Thomas Jefferson's legacy, so that critics and supporters alike may contemplate his place in history,"

译:杰菲逊纪念堂的目的是述说杰菲逊的业绩,以便于批评者和支持者共同反思他的历史地位。

"Prohibiting demonstrations is a reasonable means of ensuring a tranquil and contemplative mood at the Jefferson Memorial”.

译:禁止demonstration(较难翻译,指跳舞这样能吸引眼球的行为)是维持纪念堂宁静及利于思索的气氛的合理方法。

判决后,奥伯维特女士提出上诉。今年5月17日,华盛顿特区联邦巡回法庭作出了终审判决,支持了贝特兹法官的看法。读一读这判决书是很有意思的事情。你不得不承认,美国的法院是非常讲理的。巡回法庭的判决认为:

there is no question that she had the right to dance in order to express her admiration for Mr. Jefferson. Of course she did. But the question this case presents is whether she had the right to perform her dance inside the Jefferson Memorial.

译:她(奥伯维特女士)当然具有通过跳舞纪念杰菲逊的权利,但本案的问题在于她是否有权在杰菲逊纪念堂内部跳舞。

为分析这一问题,巡回法庭分析了“公共场所”的概念。法庭认为,政府管理的场所可分为三类:

1. The “traditional public forum” includes public areas that have “by long tradition or by government fiat . . . been
devoted to assembly and debate.”

译:传统公共场所,既根据长期传统或政府许可被用于集会,辩论的场所。

对于传统公共场所,政府只允许施加最基本限制:
The government must respect the open character of these forums, and can only impose speech restrictions that are “narrowly tailored to serve a significant governmental interest.”
译: 政府必须尊重此类场所的开放性,对其中发表言论的限制必须严格符合某种特别必要的缘由。

2. Next is the “limited public forum” or “designated public forum,” which
comprises “public property which the State has opened for use by the public as a place for expressive activity.” Perry,
460 U.S. at 45. Expressive activity in these forums may be restricted to particular speakers or purposes.

译(大意):有限公共场所。这类场所中进行的表达可以被政府限定于特定人士或特定目的。

3. Third is the “nonpublic forum,” which encompasses government property that is “not by tradition or designation a forum for public communication.” Id. at 46. Here the government “may reserve the forum for its intended purposes, communicative or otherwise, as long as the regulation on speech is reasonable and not an effort to suppress expression merely because public officials oppose the speaker’s view.” Id. This rule recognizes that “[t]he State, no less than a private owner of property, has power to preserve the property under its control for the use to which it is lawfully dedicated.”

译(大意):非公共场所。这类政府地产从传统上或其设计上看,目的并非用来进行公共交流。政府有权规定这类场所的特定用途,并可施加合理的言论限制,只要该限制并非出于官方反对言论者的观点。

那么国家纪念堂具体算哪一类呢?法庭认为,算“非公共场所”。

As a general matter, the interior space of national memorials has not traditionally “been used for purposes of assembly, communicating thoughts between citizens, and discussing public questions.” Perry, 460 U.S. at 45 (quoting Hague v. Comm. for Indus. Org., 307 U.S. 496, 515 (1939)) (internal quotation marks omitted). National memorials are places of public commemoration, not freewheeling forums for open expression, and thus the government may reserve them for purposes that preclude expressive activity.

译(大意):国家纪念场所的内部空间传统上来看并非用于集会,公民间思想交流,讨论公共问题的目的。这类场所是为了公众纪念目的,而不是无拘无束的公众表达场所。因此政府有权讲他们用于与表达性行为不想容的目的。

再具体到杰菲逊纪念堂,法庭指出:
In creating and maintaining the Jefferson Memorial in particular, the government has dedicated a space with a
solemn commemorative purpose that is incompatible with the full range of free expression that is permitted in public
forums.

具体到建立和维护杰菲逊纪念堂,政府将这一空间用于庄重的纪念目的,故不能容纳完整尺度的公共场所中可进行的自由表达。

法庭提到政府出于这一目的采取的规范是长期以来就有的:
The Regulations specifically identify the interior of the Jefferson Memorial as a place where visitors may not engage in
expressive activity that “has the effect, intent or propensity to draw a crowd or onlookers.” 36 C.F.R. § 7.96(g)(1)(i).

译:管理规则特别指出:于杰菲逊纪念堂的内部,参观者不得进行有促使人群聚集围观的效果,目的或倾向的表达活动。

Visitors to the Memorial interior must ascend a stairway, traverse a portico, and pass a sign that says “Quiet / Respect
Please” before entering.

译:参观者进入纪念堂时会经过一个写有“请安静/保持尊重”的告示牌。

当然,该判决书长达十几页,我所截取的只是其中一部分。总结一下,法庭的观点是既然杰菲逊纪念堂是被国家用于纪念目的,则属于“非公共场所”,管理方有权采取必要措施维持其内部的庄重气氛。对跳舞的限制是合理的。如果到纪念馆外部跳舞则毫无问题的受到保护。

我个人认为,法庭这一判决中,将国有(政府控制)地产分为公共场所,有限公共场所和非公共场所是非常合理的,也很具有启发性。例如,国有大学课堂当然是公有,但显然不能谁都上去讲自己想讲的话,至少上课的时候就得让给教授。将杰菲逊纪念馆列入非公共场所可能有人会有疑问,但我个人读了判决书后,觉得有说服力,至少可以肯定他不是个完全的传统公共场所。

不过亚当。科克什显然没有被说服。所以他在5月底的集体跳舞公民不服从行动目的就是为了抗议这一具体判决。管理方的限制跳舞规则获得巡回法庭支持,警察执法将拒绝服从者带上手铐带离现场也于法有据。是否涉嫌过度使用暴力是个问题,目前也正在调查。

不过,亚当自然不会这么善罢干休,让我们看看此事的尾声,这小子一星期之后又干了什么。






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